Learn Simple Conjugations of Rappeler (to Call Back)

Descartes v Hume Essay - 1542 Words

The concept of self identifies the essence of one’s very being. It implies continuous existence having no other exact equal, i.e. the one and only. Whether or not the specific characteristic(s) used to define self are objectively real, i.e. physical attributes, or purely subjective, i.e. imaginary traits, the concept makes distinct one entity from another. Rationalism is the theory that truth can be derived through use of reason alone. Empiricism, a rival theory, asserts that truth must be established by sensual experience: touch, taste, smell, et al. Rene Descartes, a philosopher and rationalist concluded that one self was merely a continuous awareness of one’s own existence; one’s substance was one’s ability to think. On the other†¦show more content†¦He reasoned that our senses often misinterpret the physical world, e.g. we sometimes see things that aren’t actually there or perceive things differently from different distances. Bodily sen ses are a means of perceiving the external world, but since we know our senses can be false or misleading, we can doubt our bodies as being a source of truth. In addition, Descartes claimed that we often sense things that don’t physically exist in the external world. For example, while dreaming we can see, smell, hear, taste and feel. If senses are a means of perceiving the external world, yet we can’t positively distinguish a dream from reality, it’s possible that the external world could be completely imaginary. Since we can sense things without bodies, it’s impossible to be certain that bodies actually exist since sensual experiences are essentially the proof of bodily existence. What’s not impossible is that an evil genius may have created our senses with the illusion of an outside world just to mislead us, and or fool us into believing that we have bodies. Though highly improbable, the idea of a very powerful evil genius cannot be disproven be yond any doubt, so it’s certainly possible that such a being may potentially exist. In Meditation II, Descartes fully rejects the notion of bodily senses, but concludes that he himself does actually exist.Show MoreRelatedDavid Hume Essay1210 Words   |  5 PagesDavid Hume Hume, David, 1711-76, Scottish philosopher and historian. Hume carried the empiricism of John Locke and George Berkeley to the logical extreme of radical skepticism. He repudiated the possibility of certain knowledge, finding in the mind nothing but a series of sensations, and held that cause-and-effect in the natural world derives solely from the conjunction ofRead MoreA Defense of David Humes Moral Sense Theory Essay2339 Words   |  10 Pagesbasis of morals in A Treatise of Human Nature, Hume states, â€Å"Philosophy is commonly divided into speculative and practical; and as morality is always comprehended under the latter division, ‘tis supposed to influence our passions and actions.† He later argues, â€Å"Since morals, therefore, have an influence on the actions and affections, it follows, that they cannot be deriv’d from reason[†¦]Morals excite passions, and produce or prevent actions† (Hume 1978). At the root of every one of our actionsRead More Fallibilism and Epistemology Essay5056 Words   |  21 Pagesaccurately, true belief with a logos--that he ultimately rejects in the Theaetetus. Epistemology could have leaped ahead two millennia, and some Hellenistic Greek could have been Ed Gettier. Perhaps a more famous victim of the quest for certainty is Descartes. He noticed that he was often wrong about things he thought he knew, even about some things he believed with a great deal of confidence. Not only have some of his well-grounded theories turned out to be wrong, but even the most certain of thingsRead MoreBranches of Philosophy8343 Words   |  34 Pagesarticle: History of Western philosophy The introduction of the terms philosopher and philosophy has been ascribed to the Greek thinker Pythagoras (see Diogenes Laertius: De vita et moribus philosophorum, I, 12; Cicero: Tusculanae disputationes, V, 8-9). The ascription is based on a passage in a lost work of Herakleides Pontikos, a disciple of Aristotle. It is considered to be part of the widespread legends of Pythagoras of this time. Philosopher replaced the word sophist (from sophoi), whichRead MoreThe Creation Of Western Civilization2015 Words   |  9 Pagesthe richest regions in Europe. Shortly following this inheritance, Maximillian’s son became married the beneficiary of Isabella and Ferdinand. This was intended so that beneath the rule of Charles V, the Hapsburgs had reign over a large amount of Europe. It was also throughout the control of Charles V, that Martin Luther had started the Protestant Reformation and the Catholic attempt to get rid of Protestant influence. â€Å"Many rulers had themselves worke d for decades to bring about basic church reformsRead MoreJohn Lockes Theory of Knowledge Essay1878 Words   |  8 Pagesknowledge, gives us a metaphysics which is not greatly different from the scholastic. He even appeals to the familiar principles of Scholasticism, showing how difficult it is for man to withdraw from the philosophy of being. Berkeley, first, and then David Hume went all the way and reduced being to the status of a subjective phenomenon. In so doing, these two philosophers merely drew the logical conclusions of the gnosiological phenomenalism proposed by John Locke. II. Life and Works John Locke was bornRead More Emotional intelligence: The rapprochement of reason and emotion5515 Words   |  23 Pagesof ancient Greece argued that the idiosyncratic nature of emotion rendered it incapable of contributing to insight and wisdom. Similar views continued to dominate academic thinking into the Renaissance period of 16th and 17th centuries of Europe. Descartes (1595-1650) argued that an emotion is one type of â€Å"passion†, where the passions are distinguished from â€Å"clear cognition†, and render judgment â€Å"confused and obscure† (1649/1989). Kant (1724-1804) further reinforced the distinction between reason onRead MoreEmotional Intelligence: the Rapprochement of Reason and Emotion5749 Words   |  23 Pagesancient Greece argued that the idiosyncratic nature of emotion rendered it incapable of contributing to insight and wisdom. Similar views continued to dominate academic thinking into the Renaissance period of 16th and 17th centuries of E urope. Descartes (1595-1650) argued that an emotion is one type of passion, where the passions are distinguished from clear cognition, and render judgment confused and obscure (1649/1989). Kant (1724-1804) further reinforced the distinction between reasonRead Morehistory of philosophy5031 Words   |  21 PagesLogic Metaphysics Political philosophy Branches Aesthetics Epistemology Ethics Logic Metaphysics Political philosophy Social philosophy Lists Index Outline Years Problems Publications Theories Glossary Philosophers   Philosophy portal v t e The  history of philosophy  is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time. Issues specifically related to history of philosophy might include (but are not limited to): How can changes in philosophy be accounted for historically?Read MoreEssay on Our Posthuman Future: The Philosophical Implications2960 Words   |  12 Pageswhat it means to think is that of the Enlightenment Philosopher, Thomas Hobbes who posited, â€Å"Thinking was nothing more than reckoning† (Mays, 1952, 159). Next, the other philosophers like Kant, Leibniz, and Hume postulated that thinking is an extension of one’s mind, which is echoed by Descartes (widely regarded as the pioneer of cognition) who stated, â€Å"I Think, Therefore I am† (Mays, 1952, 161). This leads us to the premise that the human mind is akin to a computer, which derives its intelligence

Special Administrative Measures Free Essays

Special administrative measures (SAMs) refers to the special rules that are applied to certain inmates especially those associated with violence, national security and terrorism. These types of inmates are considered to be very dangerous. These measures include monitoring and limiting an inmate’s telephone calls and any form of correspondence, restricting an inmate’s interview with the press, putting the inmate in isolation, and limiting the inmate’s privilege to receive visitors (Martin, 2004). We will write a custom essay sample on Special Administrative Measures or any similar topic only for you Order Now These measures are put in place to protect people from serious bodily harm or death especially if the victims are associated with terrorism or acts of violence (Martin, 2004). In case the inmate is associated with national security, these measures are put in place to prevent the inmates from disclosing classified information (Martin, 2004). Generally, such inmates have increased limitations and are under greater scrutiny compared to other inmates. The measures are so strict that in most circumstances the communications between the inmates and their attorneys are monitored in case the attorneys are used by the inmates to communicate with other criminals (Martin, 2004). The decision to place an inmate under special administrative measures is arrived at following a written request from the Attorney General to the director of Bureau of Prisons following advice by the intelligence agencies (Martin, 2004). There are several functions of SAMs and these can be classified as overt and covert purposes. The overt purposes relate to protection of the general public from harm by restricting an inmate’s contact with the outside world which is an avenue that the inmate can use to perpetrate violence or terrorism. One of the covert purposes is use of the monitored information for investigative purposes for example if an inmate is directing terrorism from the cell (Martin, 2004). Another covert purpose is to protect the public from anxiety which can result following disclosure of information about national security. How to cite Special Administrative Measures, Papers

Nile River free essay sample

The picture that is being depicted on the paper given is the Nile Rive It is founded in the north of Africa, it is the longest river in Africa and possible the world. This river creates a fertile land which is great for farming and from this fertile land it allowed ancient Egyptians to have a large amount of food for both there friends, families, and for trade. From this the Nile river became one of the oldest civilizations in the world to began. The fertile soil allowed the ancient Egyptian to use the soil to produce food for themselves and their animals; farming was very poplar in ancient Egypt especially along the Nile River. The gift of the Nile when you first read the title the gift of the Nile your are some what confused well if not I was I had to think deeply to myself why would Egypt be considered the gift of the Nile. We will write a custom essay sample on Nile River or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Then a light went of in my head Egypt is considered the Gift of the Nile because of its effects it has on the people that leave near by and use this river for there ever day usage. The Nile over its banks yearly and floods every thing that’s in its path from the flood new soil but appear with is know as top soil from this the Egyptian plants would grow plentiful. Herodotus statement is very true reason being without the Nile River and its yearly flooding of its banks agriculture would have been possible impossible due its Egypt location and human civilization wouldn’t have been possible as well because there plants and vegetables would have been much less likely to develop and flourish.

Investigating The Characteristics Of A Filament Lamp Essay Example

Investigating The Characteristics Of A Filament Lamp Essay Aim: To investigate how the current in a component changes as the voltage is altered. Prediction: As the voltage in the filament lamp increases, more current will flow through the circuit, causing the tungsten filament to get hotter. According to Ohms law (R =V/I), the resistance in the circuit will therefore increase. Scientific Knowledge: In order to give reason for the prediction above, already proven scientific theory can be used. A number of factors can affect how the current in a component, such as a filament lamp, can change as the voltage is altered. A predominant factor is the resistance in the circuit. The resistance in a circuit can be worked out by employing Ohms law, which declares that the resistance in a wire is equal to the voltage (V) over current (I). The final answer is given in Ohms, or (?), and the results can be displayed on a line graph and a line of best fit can be drawn. We will write a custom essay sample on Investigating The Characteristics Of A Filament Lamp specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Investigating The Characteristics Of A Filament Lamp specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Investigating The Characteristics Of A Filament Lamp specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The overall resistance in a wire can be affected, in itself, by a number of different factors. These are: i.) The length of the wire: As the length of wire increases, the total resistance in the circuit will also increase. This is because the electrons in the circuit have to get past positive ions in order to travel around the circuit. Therefore, as the length of the wire increases, the wire will contain more positive ions, and the electrons will have to pass more positive ions in order to travel around the circuit. Travelling past the positive ions causes the electrons to use up more energy just to travel around, and so the resistance shall also increase. ii.) The number of components in a circuit: Electrons require more energy to travel through components in a circuit than if they merely through just a plain wire. Therefore, the more components in a circuit, the higher the resistance will be. iii.)The cross sectional area of a wire: As the cross-sectional area of a wire increases, the resistance in the circuit will decrease. This is because there is more room in the wire for electrons to pass through, and therefore less energy is wasted as the electrons move through the circuit. iv.) Material of the wire: Some materials are better conductors of electricity than others. The better the conductor, the less resistance there will be in the wire and the easier it is for electrons to flow around the circuit. v.) Temperature of wire: As the temperature of the wire increases, the resistance in the wire also increases. Invented by Thomas Edison (1847-1931), the filament light bulb is a common feature in practically every modern home around the world. In theory the structure of a filament light bulb is quite simple. At the base of the light bulb there are two small metal contacts, which connect into a circuit. These contacts are attached to two stiff wires, which are in turn attached to a thin metal filament, hence the name filament lamp. The filament is a long thin piece of metal wire, which is coiled, and then coiled again. The filament is constructed in such a manner to make the resistance in the wire as high as possible. This is because, as the resistance in the wire increases, the filament in the lamp heats up more quickly, and therefore causing the filament to also glow more quickly. To increase the resistance in the wire, and also the temperature, the filament is made out of a metal, a good conductor of electricity, the cross-sectional area of the wire is as small as possible, in order to inc rease the resistance. Finally, the filament is coiled tightly twice so the length of the wire can be as long as possible. This is because as length of the wire increases, the resistance will also increase. The most commonly used material to manufacture the metal element out of is tungsten, chosen because of its high melting temperature. The tungsten filament sits in the middle of a bulb, held up by a glass mount, and the wires and filament are housed in a glass bulb which is filled with an inert glass, such as argon. The whole objective of a filament lamp is to pass electrical current through the tungsten filament in order to give off light. However, as well as giving off light, heat is also given off as wasted energy, which has no usage. As the voltage increases, the current flowing through the filament will also increase, meaning both more light and heat are also given off. Filament lamps are not particularly efficient as most of the energy produced is given off as heat energy, which has no use, instead of light energy. Inert gases are used in the glass bulb of a filament lamp to reduce the evaporation of the tungsten filament, which therefore greatly prolongs the life of the bulb, making it more economical. In order to investigate the characteristics of a filament lamp, a simple circuit could be set up in order to discover how much the current in the circuit changes as the voltage is altered. From these two results, Ohms law could be employed to work out the resistance. The results could then be plotted onto a number of line graphs in order to prove the prediction either correct or incorrect. If the results from an experiment involving current and voltage are plotted onto a line graph and the line of best fit forms a straight line, the current (I) is therefore proportional to the voltage (V), an indication of Ohms law. As well as being a useful method for working out the resistance in a circuit (R=V/I), Ohms law also states that the steeper a graph will be, the lower the resistance in the circuit. The flatter the graph is, the higher the resistance. A substance which produces a straight graph such like this is referred to as an Ohmic conductor. Copper wire and all other metals give this shape of graph, unless a change in temperature occurs. It is a scientifically proven fact that filament lamps are non-ohmic conductors because any results taken from experiments involving filament lamps do not produce straight lines with the values recorded. Instead, successful experiments result in the line of best fit becoming a gentle curve towards the top end of the graph. However, as it says above, the material most commonly used to manufacture filament lamps is tungsten, a metal. As the lines of best fit for all experiments involving current, voltage and metals are an indication of Ohms law, unless a change of temperature occurs. It is therefore possible to state that a change of temperature does indeed occur when a filament lamp is used in a circuit. As the voltage in a circuit is increased, more current will flow. As more current flows the metal filament will get hotter, causing the resistance to increase. This will cause the line of best fit to become flatter as the voltage increases. In order to determine which instruments and what values would be suitable to ensure that the best results possible could be obtained from the experiment, a preliminary investigation should be carried out, using potential apparatus. From these results the range of measurements needed could also be discovered. After carrying out the preliminary investigation, the best way to display the results from the main investigation itself would be to record each repeat into a simple results table, and then to work out the average current. Once the mean current has been calculated, the resistance could be also calculated. It is important to repeat the experiment a number of times, as if the experiment was only calculated once, the result would not be as accurate, and would be more likely to be anomalous. After both the mean current and the average resistance had been mathematically calculated, line graphs could be drawn and compared against the typical filament lamp graph above. In all graphs, the voltage should feature along the x axis as it is what is being controlled and changed in order to see what effect change will have on the current. A conclusion can be drawn by analysing graphs of the results recorded and comparing the graph with the typical filament lamp graph. The more similar the graphs collected from the results are to the typical filament lamp graph, the more accurate the experiment has been. However, if the graphs begin to show the shape of the filament lamp graph, yet do not fully show the shape, the investigation could be extended by taking more recordings, and drawing a new graph. The investigation could be extended further by using the same circuit to investigate a different component, such as an electric heater and seeing how the current in the heater changes as the voltage is altered. Alternatively, a different variable could be controlled, such as the number of components in a circuit, instead of the voltage. Already during the course of this academic year, I have carried out a number of experiments in class involving different components, such as diodes, although not in as much detail. The circuit diagram used in this experiment could merely be adapted from the other experiments, substituting the previous components for the filament lamp. Bibliography of Scientific Knowledge: i.) http://www.howstuffworks.com How Light Bulbs Work ii.)http://web.mit.edu/invent/www/inventorsA-H/edison.html The Scientific Career of Thomas Edison iii.)Physics For You by Keith Johnson iv.) GCSE Physics Revision Guide Published by CGP publications Variables: i.) Cross-sectional area of the filament ii.) Material type of the filament iii.) Length of the filament iv.) Voltage flowing through the circuit *NB: As the voltage is increased during the course of the investigation, more current will flow through the wire, causing the temperature to increase. It is already known that temperature affects the resistance in a circuit, yet, it cannot be controlled as a variable because the filament glows, giving off light and heat as energy, as it reaches a high temperature. Therefore, if the temperature was controlled as part of fair testing, the filament would not glow, and there would be no experiment! Chosen Variable: Voltage, as it can be easily controlled and accurately changed and measured, thus giving a conclusive range of results, and values which can be plotted easily onto a graph. Apparatus: Filament Lamp DC Power Supply Ammeter Voltmeter Wires Circuit Diagram: Fair Testing and Safety: In order to make the results acquired as accurate as possible, each voltage should be repeated three times, and the mean average of these three should be taken as the final reading. This would increase accuracy. The same pieces of apparatus should be used for each repeat, as even a slight variation in a piece of the apparatus such as the length of one wire may change the resistance in the circuit. Although the internal temperature in the filament lamp will increase as a indirect result of the voltage in the circuit being increased, the external temperature should be kept as consistent as possible. This is because the external temperature may affect the temperature of the wire, causing the electrons to gain more energy. All typical safety rules for lab work should be followed. These include no running whilst experiments are in progress, hair tied back, jewellery tucked away and carrying out all experiments on benches clear of school books and standing up with stools tucked under benches. Also, as the voltage is increased more current flows through the circuit. As this happens, it is extremely likely that the apparatus shall become hot, so particular care should be taken whilst handling it. In order to protect the benches, any apparatus which is likely to become hot should be placed on a heatproof mat. Preliminary Measurements: To get an idea of what range of measurements would get the best results, a circuit was set up using all of the apparatus which would be included in the final experiment. The preliminary investigation was also useful to discover whether I would prefer to use analogue meters or digital meters in the final experiment. After increasing the DC voltage by different ranges each time, using both types of meters, I concluded that it would be best to start from 0.5V and to finish at 6V, increasing in steps of 0.5V each time. This would give me quite an extensive range of numerical results. After this range had been repeated two more times, I could work out the mean current, and from the mean current I could work out the average resistance. Once I had discovered the average resistance, I could plot this value on the graph. When all the values had been plotted on the graph, a line of best fit could be drawn. By using both the meters in the preliminary measurements, I decided to work with the digital meters in order to measure the voltage. This was because I felt that it was easier to read accurately the voltage on the meter than with the analogue meters. On the analogue meters the needle kept moving around quickly, and did not seem to stabilize on one single value. Number of Repeats: 2 (three in total) Number of Measurements: 36 in total Range of Measurements: 0.5V 6.0V (12 individual measurements per repeat) Method: The circuit diagram mentioned above was set up using the specified apparatus. The fair test and safety requirements were strictly followed. The voltage was increased from 0.5V to 6.0V, in steps of 0.5V each time. The results gained were recorded in a table, and once the voltage had been increased up to 6V, the experiment was repeated twice more. Once all the required values had been gained, the three separate results for each voltage were added together and divided by three, in order to find the average current. Once this had been discovered, Ohms law (R=V/I) was employed to work out the resistance in ?. This mathematical process was repeated for each of the voltages. These values were then plotted onto a line graph with intention of discovering if the experiment followed the general trend of graphs involving filament lamps not being straight lines, therefore making them non-ohmic conductors. After graphs had been plotted showing the relationship between voltage and current, the graphs were analysed and any anomalous results were accounted for. The graphs then were used in order to draw a conclusion and to help explain how the current in the lamp changed as the voltage was altered. Results: Voltage (V) Current (I) 1st Repeat Current (I) 2nd Repeat Current (I) 3rd Repeat Average Current (I) Average Resistance ? 0.5 0.51 0.60 0.57 0.56 0.89 1.0 0.63 0.69 0.68 0.67 1.49 1.5 0.70 0.77 0.75 0.74 2.03 2.0 0.80 0.82 0.82 0.81 2.47 2.5 0.87 0.90 0.88 0.88 2.84 3.0 0.94 0.95 0.95 0.95 3.16 3.5 0.99 1.01 1.01 1.00 3.50 4.0 1.05 1.07 1.07 1.06 3.77 4.5 1.10 1.12 1.12 1.11 4.05 5.0 1.15 1.18 1.17 1.17 4.27 5.5 1.21 1.22 1.21 1.21 4.55 6.0 1.25 1.26 1.26 1.26 4.76 For each different voltage, the three current repeats were added together and then divided by three to calculate mathematically an average current. From these results, a line graph was plotted using the voltage (V) and the average current (I), in order to discover how the average current in the circuit changed as the voltage was increased. There were no anomalous results present on the graph, which is an indication that the test was carried out fairly and accurately. However, the line of best fit only began to curve slightly towards the end of the results, and therefore was starting to show that the filament lamp in an non-ohmic conductor. I then decided to extend the range of results until 10.0V, again taking three repeats of the current. In order to continue ensuring that the test was indeed fair, I used the same equipment as I did for the first part of the results. I followed the safety and fair testing requirements as strictly as before. Results (Part ii): Voltage (V) Current (I) 1st Repeat Current (I) 2nd Repeat Current (I) 3rd Repeat Average Current (I) Average Resistance ? 6.5 1.31 1.32 1.31 1.31 5.00 7.0 1.34 1.35 1.35 1.35 5.19 7.5 1.39 1.38 1.39 1.39 5.40 8.0 1.41 1.44 1.42 1.42 5.63 8.5 1.48 1.45 1.43 1.45 5.86 9.0 1.47 1.47 1.46 1.47 6.12 9.5 1.51 1.49 1.50 1.50 6.33 10.0 1.52 1.52 1.53 1.52 6.58 Although the aim of the investigation was to discover the relationship between voltage and current in a filament lamp, I also took the average resistance and plotted it against the voltage to show that as the voltage is increased in a circuit, the resistance will also increase, due to the change in temperature which occurs as a result of more energy flowing through the filament. Voltage (V) Resistance ? 0.5 0.89 1.0 1.49 1.5 2.03 2.0 2.47 2.5 2.84 3.0 3.16 3.5 3.50 4.0 3.77 4.5 4.05 5.0 4.27 5.5 4.55 6.0 4.76 6.5 5.00 7.0 5.19 7.5 5.40 8.0 5.63 8.5 5.86 9.0 6.12 9.5 6.33 10.0 6.58 Analysis of Results: The second line graph showing the relationship between the voltage and the average current in a filament lamp produces a curve. The curve begins very slightly at first and then gradually becomes steeper; similar to the one of x2 . It shows that as the voltage was increased, the current that was flowing through the wire also increased. There were no identifiable anomalous results in either of the two graphs showing the voltage/current relationship. The line graph showing the relationship between the voltage and the average resistance in the filament lamp also produces a curve extremely similar to that of the line graph showing the relationship between the voltage and the average current. There is only one identifiable anomalous result on the voltage/average resistance graph at 7.0V. This is most likely to be down to human error when recording the results either during the experiment or when plotting the graph. It may have also been a mistake made when calculating the average resistance, but as I checked all the resistances three times, this scenario is less likely. Conclusion: From the results recorded and the line graphs produced of the results, I feel that I have proved my prediction from the beginning of the investigation correct. The results turned out as I expected, because they show that the filament lamp was indeed a non-ohmic conductor. This is because as the chosen variable of voltage was increased, more current flowed through the circuit, yet it did not obey Ohms law (R=V/I) because the voltage was not directly proportional to the current, causing the line of best fit to curve. All graphs drawn from the results values were similar to the typical non-ohmic conductor sketch graph I included in the scientific knowledge. As the both the voltage and the current in the circuit were increased, the temperature also increased. This was also reflected on the line graphs as it is already accepted that the higher the temperature is in a circuit, the higher the resistance will be. It is already widely scientific knowledge that Ohms law also states that the steeper the line of best fit is in a graph such as this one, the lower the resistance will be in a circuit and the flatter the line of best fit, the higher the resistance. Therefore, as the voltage increased, the line began to curve and become flatter, because of the higher temperature, and higher resistance, in the circuit. Evaluation: As the aim of the investigation was fulfilled, and my prediction was proved correct, I feel that it was successful. I also think that the results were accurate enough to prove the hypothesis correct, as the measures taken to ensure that the results were taken under entirely fair conditions were strict. I also think that the results are reliable because the experiment was repeated three times and the average current was taken as the final result, which would be more accurate than taking merely the one set of results and plotting those values on the graph. The results were taken within one double period in the laboratory, allowing my group to use the same equipment for each repeat. When it was discovered that the first set of results only began to show the curve, the circuit was fortunately still set up, allowing us to continue from where we left off. However, this is the only part of the investigation where the fair testing was slightly lax, as the filament lamp had had a chance to cool down when we started to continue the experiment, meaning that the resistance in the circuit would probably have decreased slightly. With hindsight, I should have drawn graphs using the preliminary results, which would have shown that the values only started to curve. We would have then known to continue to 10V without stopping for a while at 6V. Out of the three line graphs I drew from the final results, there was only one identifiable anomalous result, in the graph showing the relationship between the voltage and the average resistance in the lamp. However, as it only just did not fit in with the line of best fit it may have been down to human error whilst reading from the ammeter, or whilst it was plotted onto the graph. It is relatively easy to make such a mistake when recording results because there are so many to read from the ammeter, and it fluctuates rapidly before settling on a final result. By choosing to use digital ammeters rather than analogue ammeters, I feel I decreased the chance of human error as it is easier to read a LCD screen which fluctuates rather than a swinging needle. Human error could also be reduced by being allowed to take more time over the experiment; more repetitions of the results would make anomalies more obvious and increase the reliability of the results further. This investigation could be extended by choosing to look at other variables which would affect the rate of resistance, such as the material which the wire is made from, the cross-sectional area of the wire, the number of components in the circuit, or the length of the wire. A different component, such as an electrical heater, could also be investigated with the variable of voltage.

Essay on Eth 125 Final

Essay on Eth 125 Final Essay on Eth 125 Final Jessica Nosbish ETH 125 Jennifer Friedrich September 6, 2013 Diversity in the United States Diversity in the United States gives us a better understanding as to what everyone goes through. Not only are people treated differently, but everyone is not treated based on their knowledge or personality, people are almost categorized and put in groups to better be described by others. Every individual is different, but everyone should be treated with respect. The United States sets a great example on what people should be treated like. Events in history like slavery, women’s rights, or equal rights are all apart of movements that are set in history to improve equal treatment. These are events that have made paths in time to let us all where we are today. There is still more things to do to improve these problems with diversity, and still more to be taught to everyone. Living in a world now that involves different diversities helps me understand who everyone is and who I am. Finding that everyone comes from a different background and everyone deserves more than just being i gnored. Today there is more than just being pushed aside or looked at with grief or pity. People should be treated equally, but is everyone really treated equal, of course not, a person cannot change their understanding or thought process even though it is wrong. The truth that I can’t wrap my head around is that most people or not all are treated with some sort of discrimination. The whole concept of a person being treated as well as you treat yourself is never going to happen, not even with your significant other. Difference should not be bad; a person can be different but be accepted into society as an equal partner or person. Whenever I come across a person who is not being treated equal or given a chance of opportunity it is sad, but if just one person can come to acceptance of everyone and understand that a person is a person. The area where I grew up was mostly in the suburbs. I grew up mostly with Caucasian families. Not only was there no other families that were Afr ican American, Hispanic, or Asian, but I grew up only thinking that this was the only race even when I moved into a smaller town. Not only was there one Hispanic in my whole high school, but there was no other races. I was not aware that there are different ethnicities, so naive and young I couldn’t comprehend people that didn’t have the same skin tone. I read in books and never met another that was not Caucasian. Not only was I unaware, my parents never spoke of different races. As soon as I got a job things changed, I worked with a lot of people and met different cultures, I worked at a grocery store in the cities and found that people are different and are raised differently. Not only was I not taught of different cultures, but I was scared to approach someone that looked different. This was all new to me, being sixteen and not understanding anything about the real world. Being so dumb and young doesn’t help unless my mind is willing to learn. I was so intrig ued by everyone else and wanted to know everything. I wanted to believe that everyone was equal, but I soon found out that people reflect differently on what race a person is or how much money they had. Cliques were formed and soon I wasn’t really a part of any group. Usually races stuck with each other as well as people that were in the same income class. My parents were Caucasian and didn’t have a lot of money so I feel into becoming a loner. Not only was each group diverse, but they all stuck together, no one went outside their groups even though we all worked at the same place. Now I look back at everything I was taught and what I learned on my own, I find that most people judge everyone just based on categories. Finding that everyone is judged right when they walk through the door is remarkable. I think of the same comparison as when a person is sentenced in prison. Not only when a person walks through the door,

Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organisation Essay

Dispute Settlement in the World Trade Organisation - Essay Example Most importantly, and despite the organisation and efficiency of the WTO in producing resolutions, there is the question of whether or not member states will follow through with panel mandates, most specifically those states with the greatest economic power. Experience so far tells us that state cooperation on panel findings may not be the norm and that attempts at retaliation by complaining states could cause a bitter tit for tat situation in which no one wins. By the 1990s the predecessor to the World Trade Organisation, the GATT (The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), was of limited use in a world of ever increasing economic interdependence. Member states who came to negotiate at the Uruguay Rounds clearly saw the need to move beyond discussions pertaining purely to trade in goods and into to the areas of services and intellectual property. The trading system that was to come out of these negotiations would become the basis of the new multilateral trading system established on January 1, 1995. The mandate of the newly created WTO was composed of sixteen articles and four annexes which covered the newly adopted issues as multilateral services and intell... In order for the new system to work there was no doubt amongst the members that it must have a stronger institutional structure.1 Article 3.2 of the WTO Agreement states, "'The dispute settlement system of the WTO is a central element in providing security and predictability to the multilateral trading system.'"2 In order to fully appreciate the importance of the changes made to the process of dispute settlements it is helpful to discuss the nature of dispute settlement under the GATT. Before 1995 complaints of unfair trade practices were heard under the GATT by a panel of independent experts on legal matters. The panel would listen to both arguments and then it would issue a ruling which would in turn have to be accepted by members of the GATT in order for it to take affect. Most often than not the offending nation would vote against the ruling and political and economic pressure would be the only recourse left to make it comply.3 In addition, while these types of pressure may have worked on smaller countries, bigger members of GATT could not easily be swayed by such measures. In this sense the GATT system was completely lacking in adjudication because it did not have "the means to enforce compliance or conduct surveillance of adherence to panel decisions."4 One of the most important advance s made during the creation of the WTO charter was the requirement that for panel findings to be reversed the majority of the nations must reject the decision of the panel. This change formally ended with the veto problem by the offending country. The Uruguay Round also introduced greater discipline for the time limits within which a dispute should be settled. Prompt settlement of an issue was seen as essential if the WTO was to function

The Railroad Era and Economic Growth Paper Research

The Railroad Era and Economic Growth - Research Paper Example The only means of transport was either by wagons, stagecoaches or by the ocean, this discouraged immigration of children and women (Norris, 2008). Fortunately, in 1862, The Central pacific Railroad emerged from California’s need for a remedy to its transportation crisis as well as socio economic challenges. Construction of the railroad began at Sacramento in 1863 after the congress authorized it the previous year. The businesspersons who combined efforts to finance the project named themselves the ‘octopus’ and the profits from the project rewarded them greatly years later. With the development and opening of the railroad, traveling time from the state to other states and within the cities greatly reduced. From travelling for months and several weeks, the people of California could now use just a week or days to reach their destinations. The Central Pacific Railroad was labelled the safest means of transport, most attractive site for tourists as well as the most direct means for transport for the immigrants across the American continent. Transport of goods and services developed as the machinery, mails, manufactured goods, as well as human resources begun moving to the west. In addition, natural resources, and food rolled eastward hence feeding almost half of the Eastern populace. Along the Central Pacific Railroad as well as its terminals, towns emerged and developed quickly because of the strategic location. Among the towns that developed along the lines of this railroad were North Plate, Lexington, Julesburg, Cheyenne, LA rime, Rock Springs, and Eva nston. People begun purchasing land that the had been given to the railroads as grants and they established settlements in the new town, constructed houses, began business activities as well as ranches and farms (Norris, 2008). The Octopus used agents to market the area

Distance Learning Education Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Distance Learning Education - Research Paper Example There has been a recent explosion in the field of education of distance learning but the history of distance learning dates back to as early as 1728, when Caleb Phillips, who was a teacher of Short Hand method, published an advertisement in Boston Gazette to seek students to whom he would send lectures on weekly basis. (Distance Learning 2007).The Pioneers of distance learning relied on postal services in the 19th century to provide educational opportunities to students who were not able to seek education by attending conventional schools. An Englishman, Isaac Pitman, is regarded has an early pioneer in providing distance education. In 1840s, Isaac Pitman taught Short Hand using correspondence in the Great Britain. The University of London established its Eternal Programme in 1858, and became the world’s first university to provide the opportunity of attaining distance learning degrees to international and national students. In the United States, the concept of extended educat ion through satellite colleges was established in the University of Chicago, by William Rainey Harper, who was the University’s first president. In 1829, William Rainey Harper further promoted education by encouraging the concept of providing school courses through correspondence, an idea that was originally put forward and practiced by Columbia University. In 1911, the Department of Correspondence studies was established in the University of Queensland in Australia. In America, Charles Wedemeyer of the University of Wisconsin-Madison encouraged the use of methods other than the postal service in providing distance education. In the UK, Open universities were established in 1969, which initially provided distance educational courses through radio and television broadcasts and now some of these open universities have attained the status of ‘mega universities’. In the United States, Jones International University was established in 1996 and is the first university to provide all its educational services online. The University is accredited by an accrediting association. Today, undergraduate and post graduate distance education is provided by many private and public, as well as by for- profit and non-profit educational institutions. Following the recent explosion in distance learning, national government authorities such as Quality Assurance Agency in UK and Distance Education and Training Council in the US, have been established to provide accreditation to distance education providing institutions. (Lau et al 2000). Virtual High School: Virtual High Schools or online high schools refer to the institutions which provide K-12 courses, in which the instructor and students are not only separated by time but by distance as well. The instructor provides the course by employing various methods such as multiple course management applications, internet, and resources relating to multimedia and video conferencing. The students communicate and interact with the instructors by using these same methods. (Distance Learning 2004). Types of Online High Schools: I. State Sanctioned Online high schools: In America, online high schools in fourteen states have been sanctioned by the state government and are designated as the State’s own virtual high schools. Such as the Florida Virtual School which in terms of enrollments is the largest virtual school and has been providing online educational services since 1997. Since its establishment the institution has been funded by the

What Subject Do I Like Best Essay Example for Free

What Subject Do I Like Best Essay In school, of all the classes I have to take, I like P.E. most. Why? There are three simple reasons why I love it: there is no homework, it helps me stay healthy, and last, it is quite relaxing to learn. First, the homework part, for me, it’s a dream comes true when there’s no homework for me to do. I am kind of obsessed with homework. I open my eyes thinking about homework, I eat thinking about homework, I even take a bath thinking about homework. So it’d be nice to have at least one subject that doesn’t require my thinking about homework. And that’s the first reason why I like physical education. Second, about the true value of this subject, it helps us me stay strong. Obviously, P.E. helps us improving our health. Students are very careless about their own good by doing things that harm them in the way that they don’t know, such as: sitting in front of the computers for hours, watching television for much too long, and many more. Those are the habits that are quite hard for children to change. And that’s when P.E. comes into place. It make us do workouts, prevent us from getting out of shape and of course, no one wants to be fat because of one simple reason: you won’t look attractive to other people and maybe that special someone is one of those â€Å"people†. And last but not least, there’s absolutely no pressure learning this subject. You don’t have to pay much attention when studying. There’s almost nothing too complicated about P.E. compare to other classes like Math, Physics, Chemistry†¦ and so that’s the last reason I like this.

In search of peachy love :: essays research papers

The love between father and daughter. Sometimes it's shared, however most often the father loves the daughter unconditionally whatever might happen. This peach story is very sad and colorless, to a point where if we did not have the peaches one would not be able to finish reading it. One day we have this father and daughter relationship. The girl whom from what we get in the story rarely comes to see her father: "although she couldn't remember when they had been together before" pg 60. The father who tries his hardest to make sure the girl has at least good memories of him. The girl seems to all thought the story treat her father like a business partner. In retrospective she still thinks about the littlest things that make him who he is from what he is wearing to the hairs on his mustache. I really could not tell if she really enjoyed her time at his house beyond telling him toward the end, or if she only thought he was funny: "Anyhow they were together and he was kind of funny." This is the last that we see of any love coming from the daughter's side. In this relationship the father tries to make his daughter like she is at home, by this showing that he loves her immensely. In the story there are several occasions that show that he misses his little girl and in his own way tries to convince her to stay a little longer. Through the simplest detail he lives out the best moment with his daughter. When they are out on a walk she spots a bunch of peaches through a store window, so he buys them for her appeasement. In his mind he cannot wait to share them with her. This way he could recall how she enjoyed the taste of the peaches he bought for her. Dad sits down, gives his daughter the best looking fruit and for himself he takes the only flawed piece of the peach bunch he bought. These fruit they share are the only way we know from the story they find a middle ground. The pair enjoys their treat in silence, father eating the good half of his fruit and daughter finishing hers. From his spoiled half of the peach and unwanted guest pa ys them a visit. This tiny Gaston, worm, bug etc. gives them the best topic of conversation so far.

Ap Euro Notes

AP EUROPEAN HISTORY NOTES- Filled with silliness and inside jokes, enjoy at your leisure 🙂 If something is in [] brackets, it is only written in there for our pleasure, ignore it if you are looking for actual information. †¢ 7: The Renaissance and Reformation- 1350-1600 Key:UMSUniversal o Georgio Vasari- Rinascita=rebirth (like Renaissance) painter/architect Male Suffrage o Individualism: People sought to receive personal credit for achievements, unlike medieval ideal of â€Å"all glory goes to god† Names Ideas o Renaissance: Began in Italian city-states, a cause de invention of the printing press, laid way for Protestant Reformation Events Books/Texts Italy: City states, under HRE (Holy Roman Empire) o For alliances: ? old nobility vs. wealthy merchants FIGHT P-Prussia ?Popolo: third class, â€Å"the people†, wanted own share of wealth/power R-Russia A-Austria ? Ciompi Revolts: 1378 Florence, Popolo were revolting [eew], brief period of control over gover nment B-Britain ? Milan taken over by signor (which is a tyrant) †¢ Under control of the Condottiero (mercenary) Sforza- Significant because after this, a few wealthy families dominated Venice (e. g. Medici) o Humanism: Francesco Petrarch (Sonnets), came up with term â€Å"Dark Ages†, began to study classical world of rhetoric and literature ?Cicero: Important Roman, provided account of collapse of Roman Republic [like Edward Gibbon], invented Ciceronian style: Latin style of writing which humanists followed †¢ [Even though they weren’t in Rome, Humanists did as the Romans do] ? Despite being accused of following Pagan culture, Petrarch talked a lot about universality Civic Humanists: Politicians/ diplomats, utilized public education for common good Plato: Studying Greek allowed enlightened people to observe platonic ideals [also, big fat weddings] ? ? †¢ e. g. Platonic view of human potential: observed by Pico della Mirandola, who gave oration on the di gnity of man ?Castiglione: wrote The Courtier, about what we would call a â€Å"renaissance man†: knew languages, classical literature, and artsy stuff -12009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Lorenzo Valla wrote about Donation of Constantine: Document where Constantine took control of the Christian empire, said it was a fake because the word fief was not invented yet. †¢ Analyzed The Vulgate Bible, said Jerome mistranslated from Greek! [silly Jerome] ? Leonardo Bruni [like Carla Bruni]- created education for women, though †¢ Left public speech out of curriculum, because â€Å"women had no outlet to use these skills† [oh. Silly women. ? o o Christine de Pisan wrote The City of Ladies, countered notion of inferiority, [but this was soon proven false. ] Middle Ages: Paintings were fresco [fresca] on plaster, Tempera on wood Renaissance Art ? Chiaroscuro: [Not at all like Mr. Carrasco]: Contrast between light/dark to make 3D images Single-poi nt perspective- everything converges to a point at infinity †¢ More realism than in Dark Ages art ? ? ? ? Filippo Brunelleschi- dome at cathedral of Florence High renaissance- Rome replaces Florence as center of art Religious people in Florence do not like new style, but Popes (Julius II) liked â€Å"to beautify [bootify? their city† Late Renaissance/Mannerism- distorted figures and confusing themes reflected growing crisis in Italy High Renaissance Artists ? ? †¢ †¢ Leonardo da Vinci- Military engineer, architect, sculptor, scientist, inventor, Mona Lisa Raphael- from Urbino, commissioned for Vatican palaces, images of Jesus and Mary, School of Athens shows Plato + Aristotle [kissing? ] in single point perspective Michelangelo- David commissioned by Florence as propaganda work against Milan [maybe it was the genitalia. , Sistine Chapel for Julius II, tomb for Julius II [Splinter- Trainer of the Ninja Turtles] †¢ †¢ o Northern Renaissance ? Questions concerning religion- study early Christian authors -22009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Erasmus + More- Christian humanists criticized church, horrified that Martin Luther did not find ways to better the Catholic church †¢ Desiderius Erasmus- coined â€Å"Where there is smoke there is a fire† in his book Adages, also wrote Praise of Folly= Satire to criticize church, wanted to reform church instead of abandoning it like [Lex?No. ] Luther Sir Thomas More- Utopia, meaning ‘nowhere’, executed for not recognizing Henry VIII as head of the church of England ([ut he could have just forgotten his glasses] †¢ ? Art †¢ †¢ †¢ Albrecht Duror- woodcuts in support of Luther’s revolution Chaucer- Canterbury Tales based The Decameron William Shakespeare- [about whom we know nothing] only primary school education, examined human psyche and dramatic intensity in his work, contemporaries= Christopher Marlowe and Ben Jonson, [ wooer of beautiful History teachers] Printing Press with movable type- Johannes Gutenberg, 200 bibles, went broke after making his bibles as ornate as handwritten ones, sillllllllly †¢ †¢ †¢ Movable type created rapid spread of information Informed people of religious debates Made churches’ monopoly over bible interpretations VEXING o Protestant Reformation [complex and compelling! ] ? Humanism- led individuals to question traditional ideas of salvation [but not salivation] Problems facing El Churcho ? †¢ †¢Black Death- â€Å"ferocious outbreak of the black plague†, [not related to black people] Anticlericalism- movement disrespecting clergy arising from poor performance of clergymen during the plague, and in fact, that such a plague could befall so many people Pietism- [DELICIOUS] direct relationship between the individual and god, reducing the need for a hierarchical church Babylonian Captivity and corruption in general within the church Poor ly educated lower clergy, often a result of simony- the sale of church office †¢ †¢ †¢ 32009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? John Wycliff- had some no nos: †¢ No no: wealth of church No no: transubstantiation- the belief that bread and wine are Jesus’ body and blood [Wait, did Catholics support heathen cannibalism? What. ] No no: indulgences- selling of salvation by the church/no waiting in Purgatory, began during crusades to get knights [but was a popular sin for ages] â€Å"urged his followers (known for unclear reasons as the Lollards) [lololol] to read the bible and to interpret it themselves† Translated bible into English †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ ?Jan Hus- Bohemia, Rector of University of Prague said bible was > church, called before council in Constance, promised safe passage there, but burnt at the stake [medium-rare] Martin Luther [not to be confused with Martin Postumus] [actually, feel free to confuse him wi th Martin Posthumus. Next time you see Martin, ask him about sacraments. ] – does not like indulgences, 95 Theses @ Wittenberg a response to ? †¢ Albert of Hohenzollern- had to raise ten thousand [ which is over 9,000] ducats, so hired Johann Tetzel to sell indulgences, Tetzel: â€Å"As soon as gold in the basin rings, the soul to heaven rings. o †¢ Pope Leo X: â€Å"Not interested in a squabble between monks†, ignored 95 theses Luther cont’d- Dominicans wanted to charge Luther with Heresy because of the 95 Theses, Address to the Christian Nobility= secular gov’t can reform church, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church= attacked sacraments, Liberty of a Christian Man= bible is the sole [SOUL HAHAHA] source of faith, a bolt of lightning almost strikes him-> he becomes a monk [what the hell? Pope Leo X- issued a papal bull [Toro! ] demanding Luther recant or be burnt, Luther burns bull, excommunicated [by PETA] Frederick, elector of Saxony - German prince, sympathetic to Luther’s ideas Diet of Worms [Eww]: Council of German nobility, HRE emperor Charles X asked Luther if he repudiates his books, to which he said he doesn’t accept authority of the pope, only God.Exiled, hidden for a year in Wartburg Castle [filled with toads, very unpleasant] by Frederick of Saxony Luther Cont’d Cont’d: reduced sacraments from 7 to 2, which were baptism and communion, had several children with an ex-nun, family placed at center of religious faith. †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ -42009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Why did the Reformation succeed? †¢ German Peasants’ Revolt- Result of worsened economic condition, 12 articles interpreting Lutheranism as a message of social egalitarianism, to whichLuther wrote â€Å"Against The Robbing and Murderous Hordes of Peasants† Luther was not critical of—even encouraged—princes to confiscate Catholic land Charles V: Couldn’t control huge empire w/ Spain, New World, The Netherlands, Southern Italy, The Habsburgs, so he didn’t do anything when the Protestants got revolting [it’s because they never brushed their teeth], eventually fought protestants in [best word ever, by the way] Schmalkaldic Wars but was forced to sign Peace of Augsburg, which recognized Lutheranism in territories owned by a Lutheran. †¢ †¢ ? Radical Reformation †¢Anabaptists- denied Baptism [go figure] o Believed baptism would only work on adults because they knew what they were doing. Rebaptism became a capital offense in HRE, darn. Anabaptists took over Munster and created an â€Å"Old-Testament-style theocracy†: men allowed to have multiple wives. More normal people [mainstream Christians] then captured it back. o o o †¢ Antitrinitarians- denied Trinity [Really? ] o Were hunted down ? Zwingli and Calvin †¢ Zwingli- Denied Sacraments, called last supper â€Å"a memorial of Christ’s death†, did not have actual presence of Christ [wait, explain this.Was he just like†¦ in the bathroom or something? â€Å"Hey guys, Jesus isn’t coming†¦ Should we start without him? †¦Sure! † Disciples are meanies, QED. ] o o Swiss patriot Died leading Zurich’s troops against Swiss Catholics †¢ John Calvin- Wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion: Predestination, No free will, Geneva= New Jerusalem, No taverns, Penalties for having gypsies read your fortune (not joking. ) ? [Black or Blonde? English-] The English Reformation -52009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ Henry the Eighth, by the Grace of God, King of England and France, Defender of the Faith and Lord of Ireland†- [Epitaph courtesy of Wikipedia when researching earlier. I want such a title. ] o Tried to divorce Catherine of Aragon, even though previous pope had given him special dispensation to marry her in the fi rst place. Pope refused, Henry began reformation of parliament. ? Reformation Parliament: †¢ Gave bribes of land from monasteries (because he dissolved them) as a reward for passing certain acts, passed: o oAct of Supremacy: King of England is supreme head of Church of England Henry can marry Anne Boleyn Act of Succession: Children of Anne Boleyn are rightful heirs (ouch for Catherine) o o Had been sleeping with Anne Boleyn, gotten her pregnant, therefore â€Å"act in restraint of appeals† declaring the King decided spiritual cases within the kingdom rather than the pope. Anny Boleyn gave birth to Elizabeth Tudor, so he beheaded her. o †¢ †¢ Edward VI- Short reign, tried to institute Protestant theology into Church of England. Mary Tudor- Also short reign, wife of â€Å"phonetically catholic† Philip of Spain, tried to bring back Catholicism. ? Burned several hundred Englishmen at the stake [? ] The Counterreformation- Also known as the Catholic Reformati on †¢ Index of prohibited books- Included Erasmus, Galileo [what, physics? Never heard of it†¦] Papal inquisition- Put heretics to death [heretic is a freaking awesome word. ] Council of Trent- Papacy controlled church council, enhanced papal power o Council placed limits on simony, mandated education, caused intensely polar interpretations of the world, Baroque art and music created. [If it ain’t Baroque, don’t fix it! ] †¢ †¢ †¢Ignatius Loyola- founded Jesuits, Religion was a â€Å"spiritual conversation with God†, not within Bible but within oneself. Spiritual exercises. -62009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ 8: The Age of Expansion and the Rise of Monarchical States o Portuguese & Spanish Empires ? Bartholomew Dias: sailed around Cape of Good Hope, southern tip of Africa. [Cape of Hood Hope: common typo? ] Vasco de Gama: reached coast of India Christopher Columbus: Sailed to Canary Islands, from there to B ahamas †¢ Noted in his diary that Indians were friendly and gentle, therefore easy to enslave [Not a cool guy] ? ? Magellan circumnavigates globe †¢ Cortez- Mexico, in Aztec Empire o Conquered Tenochtitlan with help of Aztec slaves †¢ †¢ Montezuma- gave gold, in return Spanish seized the capital and took him hostage. [Really, Spain? Really? ] Pizarro destroyed Incas in Peru o †¢ o Captured Inca emperor Atahuelpa, ransomed him for gold, ruled through him, then killed him. [Yep, this again. ] Spanish created Haciendas, plantations, through encomienda system of forced labor [for some reason, Alex prefers to italicize rather than bold]Development of Monarchical States ? Reversal of parliaments from Middle Ages to create absolute monarchies †¢ †¢ ? Jean Bodin- Monarchies have to be absolute Louis XIV- France, Stuart Monarchs- England Nation-States †¢ Bureaucratization- established office of intendant, tax collector on behalf of monarch o Need for m oney led to corruption seen in sale of royal office (except in England) †¢ Permanent mercenary army o Swiss phalanx- army of pikemen [not Pokemon] [Pokemon is in the Mac dictionary] who killed horsemen, later had gunpowder. Created a 72009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus need for money in monarchy, need which could only be fed by an absolute monarchy. ? Monarchs need taxes to pay for permanent armies, which were used to suppress peasants angry at taxes—vicious circle ? Italy †¢ †¢ Treaty of Lodi- Balance of power among major Italian city-states, created alliance between enemies Milan and Naples [YOUR NAPLES ARE SHOWING] Ludovico Il Moro- became despot in Milan, fought Naples [which are showing] and invited French to satisfy longstanding claims to Naples [which are showing] Charles VIII immediately did so, when he gets to Florence he meets Savonaroli, a radical Dominican preacher who had just expelled Medicis and established a Puritanical sta te Recognizes what he had done, joined an anti-French alliance to expel French and reinstate Medicis Medicis burn Savonaroli at the stake (with support of Pope) in revenge. o o †¢ Nicola Machiavelli- The Prince [Story about a prince on a white horse, saves a princess and then marries her to gain control of her country, institutes harsh rule] ? Spain- [Dominion of JULIA LOPEZ] Ferdinand of Aragon marries Isabella of Castille o Consolidated peninsula- called Reconquista ? Included Religious Uniformity, led to Spanish Inquisition [Nobody expected it] [I’d prefer a new edition of the Spanish Inquisition than to ever let a woman in my life] Spanish Inquisition: Anti-Jew, Anti-Moor ? o Charles V (Ferdinand &Isabella’s grandson)- married into becoming HRE, abdicates and gives throne to brother Ferdinand (also controls Habsburg lands) ? His son Philip receives Spain, southern Italy, The Netherlands, the New World Duke of Alva’s Council of Troubles: tried to enforce Catholicism for Philip in Netherlands, also sent Military hero Don Juan to fight, later sent Spanish Armada Results: Council failed, Don Juan failed, Protestant Wind blew Armada away [WOOOOOOOSH] †¢ -82009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ o Cervantes- Don Quixote [Donkey Hotay], bemoaned lack of chivalry [French for Being a Horse] in Spain El Greco revealed that powerful Spain could not maintain European position The Holy Roman Empire ? 0th and 11th centuries- most powerful state, grew weaker with papal conflict †¢ Despite lack of army, popes supported by German Nobility, giving them strong sway over emperor o †¢ †¢ Golden Bull- 7 German princes given right to elect emperor Charles V- powerful Habsburg, attempted to establish genuine imperial control, used Lutheran reformation as a weapon against German princes Peace of Augsburg- Princes given the right to decide religion of territory aka Ecclesiastical Reservation, Catholicism or Lutheranism oProblematic for Frederick III of the Palatinate (an elector state) who was a Calvinist ? Thirty Years War- about thirty years long. †¢ †¢ †¢ Began in Bohemia, Ferdinand of Styria is crowned king Protestant angry with his intolerance defenestrate his catholic advisors in Prague [Turkey Baster Turkey Baster la la la la la] HRE Emperor Mathias dies, Ferdinand elected emperor o A few hours later, he learns he has been overthrown in Bohemia †¢ †¢ †¢ Frederick, a Calvinist (! ) is the new king in Bohemia Ferdinand had no army, so he borrowed the Duke of Bavaria’s army [what?You can do that? ] Battle of the White Mountain- Bavarian forces win a major victory, [create cream] Frederick is now sad, called the winter king because he only ruled for winter Private armies want to keep fighting so they can have $$$, so war continues Duke of Bavaria fears Habsburgs-> Ferdinand must find new army †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ o o Albrecht vo n Wallenstein- VAST MERC ARMY 125,000 Major victories in the north for Ferdinand -92009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢Edict of Restitution- outlawed Calvinism, required Lutherans to turn over all property seized since 1552 Gustavus Adolphus- King of Sweden, entered war due to Edict, claiming to defend Protestant rights, actually nope, just wanted German territory Cardinal Richelieu- Absolutist, Decided to support Swedish army [financially because he didn’t want Habsburgs to be strong Peace of Westphalia- 30 yr war over o o HRE maintains divisions Emperor still leader of Germany Reaffirmed Peace of Augsburg (princes choose religion of territory, Calvinism added as a choice now) o France- [Dominion of Funny Bear (http://www. youtube. com/watch? v=5H59Py7KApU) and Gerard Giblin] ?Henry II- dies in a jousting tournament from a lance to the eye, [he should have seen that coming†¦] -> Francis II is king French Wars of Rel igion †¢ Began when Duke of Guise saw a group of Huguenots worshiping in a barn, got mad, HAD THEM SLAIN Huguenots- French Calvinists [HUGE KNOTS] Catherine de Medici o o After Henry II dies, Francis II was too young—Catherine was a regent January Edict of 1562- Huguenots [HUGE KNOTS] gain freedom of worship Peace of Saint Germaine-Laye: Protestants can fortify cities (Catherine allied with Catholics, but did not want the protestants to be sad, so this is what they get) †¢ †¢ o †¢ †¢ Guise==catholic, militant [geese] Bourbon—Calvinists [ALEX WHAT UP WITH THE ITALICS] o o Admiral Coligny (Advisor to Charles IV, so Catherine didn’t like him) & Prince of Conde—both converted for political opportunities Henry of Navarre (Bourbon prince) marries Charles IX’s sister, shifting power to Bourbons—Catherine de Medici doesn’t want either to have power, so she convinces Charles IX to do St. Bartholomew’s Day Massac re- burning all Huguenots – 10 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? o Coligny dies, Navarre’s life spared—he promised to convertHenry III (Not Navarre) wanted to defeat powerful Catholic League [Geese], made Navarre his heir, Huguenots then helped him attack them Peace of Beaulieu- complete religious freedom for Protestants. [THIS IS NEW. NO REALLY. ] Henry of Navarre becomes Henry IV of France when Henry III assassinated o o ? ? ? Everyone supports him because of common enemy of Spain Until revolution, all French kings are from Bourbon dynasty Converts to Catholicism to be of the majority group, but so Huguenots would not get mad he created: Edict of Nantes- Huguenots can worship and assemble, and maintain fortified cities NAVARRRRRRR ? Politique- the idea of putting the interest of the state before religious unity- Henry III and Henry IV was one of these Royal Absolutism- ? †¢ Henry IV tries to revitalize kingdom torn apart by war o o Duke of Sully + HIV [Henry the fourth, silly]- established government monopolies over things people like, such as salt Limited nobility in parliament Assassinated, 9 year old son Louis XIII takes throne, but like most nine year olds, is a relatively weak King. o †¢ Louis XIII oNeeded strong minister†¦ Bonjour, Cardinal Richelieu! ? Richelieu beats up Huguenots [HUGE KNOTS] and takes away Edict of Nantes [that was fast. ] Brings France into thirty years war -> increased gov’t power Dies, replaced by Mazarin ? ? †¢ Louis XIV o Five years old. Anne Of Austria, his mother, selects Cardinal Mazarin to be regent – 11 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? o Less sure political hand than Richelieu. This led to a lot of rebellions called the Fronde.Mazarin dies, Louis decides because of the Fronde to rule without an advisor [he is a teenager and believes the world revolves around him] Louis told people that the monarch had the â€Å"div ine rights,† backed it up by the Old Testament. o ? Bishop Bossuet said that the king was chosen by god (only god could judge the behavior of the king) [Louis was probably sitting in a corner, going, â€Å"don’t judge me! †] o o May or may not have said â€Å"l’etat c’est moi,† (I am the state) Builds Versailles to demonstrate his power, wanted to safely ignore the people 12 miles away from Paris ? While it cost a huge amount of money to maintain Versailles, Louis thought it was worth it. Instead of plotting against the king, the aristocrats were involved with court intrigue and gossip and with ceremonial issues such as who got to hold the king’s sleeve as he dressed† [Best review book ever? ] o Jean-Baptiste Colbert= minister, instituted mercantilism? building up gold by exporting goods, an economy based on exports. Organized factories and abolished tariffs. ?Five Great Farms- large regions where one does not have to go through customs French East India Company, west coast of Africa, posts in India, much of the Caribbean, Quebec, = French international mercantilist empire of supreme power. ? o For real this time. Revokes the Edicts of Nantes, demolishes Huguenot churches, takes away Huguenot’s civil rights. They ran away to England and the Netherlands, and since France was at war with England and the Netherlands, they fought against France. [Stupid, stupid Louis] ? o England Treaty of Utrecht- Bourbons lead Spain ?War of the Roses- Series of civil wars to determine whether York or Lancaster would rule England. †¢ †¢ Result: Lancaster (Henry VII, a Tudor) will be king. After Henry VII dies, Henry VIII becomes king [surprise surprise] – 12 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Henry VIII believed his sovereignty would be ineffective if England was under religious jurisdiction of Rome-> created Church of England TUDOR: Queen Elizabeth—Henry’s daugh ter with Anne Boleyn ? †¢ Called The Virgin Queen- used marriage as a diplomatic tool, used rulers made them think she would marry them ? owerful alliances [writing that in italics makes it look like the name of a boat] †¢ Mary Stuart of Scotland- her legal heir, also Catholic o Kept her under house arrest, she was afraid Mary was plotting against her Treaty of Burwick- Let it be known that James (Mary’s son) will be king of England instead (he was Protestant), in your face Mary Queen of Scots ? Knock knock †¢ Who’s there o Mary Queen of Scots o Bye bye, your head! o †¢ Elizabeth beat Spanish Armada? England remains Protestant and free of foreign dominance ?STUART: James VI- Absolutist, didn’t call parliament for awhile, eventually he called it because he needed money †¢ Puritans- thought monarch shouldn’t be head of church o So James persecuted the Puritans ? STUART: Charles I †¢ Lent support to Armenians (sect of Anglican c hurch, believed in predestination), named William Laud the Archbishop of Canterbury [unrelated to the eggs] [wait, those are Cadbury Eggs. Never mind] Requested a forced loan from nobles, they didn’t want to pay so he threw them in jail †¢ o They put forward Petition of Rights, forced him to sign: ? ? ?No forced taxation without Parliament No free man could be imprisoned without due cause No quartering of troops in private homes – 13 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? No martial law against civilians †¢ John Eliot- Three Resolutions [this formatting is intense] o o o Anyone suspected of practicing Catholicism is a â€Å"capital enemy of the state† Any of King’s advisors who recommend he raise funds outside of Parliament are also â€Å"capital enemies of the state† Anyone who paid tonnage and poundage (duties the king imposed without parliament) was betraying the liberties of England Response: King dissolved parliam ent †¢ Personal Rule of Charles: Charles governing England sans Parliament o To get money: collected ship money: used to be where coastal towns paid extra tax to pay for shipbuilding, but now errrybody in the club getting taxed. Insisted that Calvinist Scotland adopt Church of England and prayer book The Book Of Common Prayer 1640: Charles called parliament because he thought they would give him money to put down Scottish rebellion- â€Å"Short Parliament† Dissolved it because they refused to give him funds before addressing their own needs. Formed an army because he was still angry at Scots [then he banned kilts] ?JK, Scots win †¢ †¢ Scots refuse to leave after invading England Made Charles pay a lot of money to them o o o o †¢ Charles has to call Long Parliament to pay for it o o o o Size matters Met for 20 years Impeached Charles’ ministers Abolished prerogative courts (king’s courts) such as Star Chamber †¢ Grand Remonstrance- A lot (240) of things that Parliament are moaning and whining about o Says Parliament has to approve minister – 14 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o o o Church of England reformed by committee No ship money ***Parliament called once every 3 years*** †¢ In response: CHARLES INVADES PARLIAMENT o †¢ House of Commons passes Militia Ordinance (very quickly because there were Soldiers at their doors) Gave Parliament control of the army [Charles I fled to England, just in case] o [jk] ? Civil War Happened †¢ Major issues: o Whether England was going to have an absolute monarch or parliamentary monarch Anglican or Presbyterian [See Lizzy Pelletier] Cavaliers vs Roundheads o o ? ? ? Cavaliers==King Charles, Nobility, Anglicans Roundheads==parliament, Scots, townspeople, puritans Parliament won because of alliance with Scots Gen Cromwell (Lord Protector) created â€Å"New Model† army Parliament tries Charles for treason, executes ? ? Commonwealt h †¢ †¢ Abolished monarchy + house of lords No more Anglican church, now puritan republic o Puritan Rules of Behavior: simple clothes, no entertainment, no alcohol, no dancing, [no fun. ] Independents wanted state church and religious freedom Presbyterians wanted state church and NO DISSENTERS o o †¢ Parliament: No mo army o Cromwell says nope – 15 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Wants to conquer Ireland and Scotland [didn’t these guys just help you? Not cool. Parliament gives no money to Army †¢ Cromwell disbands Parliament o This is a new thing. We have never seen this before. Really. The only important thing he does is separate England into military districts ? o ? Cromwell dies, monarchy back †¢ STUART: CHARLES II o Treaty of Dover [come on Dover. Move your bloomin’ arse! ]- Charles would convert to Catholicism when conditions permit, made between Charles and French Louis XIV ? Charles gets a lot of money f rom Louis. This was good for him because he was getting a lot less English money to support his lavish lifestyle †¢ STUART: James II o repeals Test Act (didn’t allow Catholics to be officials/military, swear oaths for transubstantion), [also, AP Test Act] Declaration of Indulgence ? ? No more religious tests for office holders Allowed freedom of worship Parliament Reaction: Not worried because they thought the throne would go to James’ daughter: Mary the protestant †¢ Sneaky James marries, makes a bebby, New James the Catholic o Parliament responds by inviting Mary the protestant and her new husband, William of Orange to invade England, no opposition ? †¢ ORANGES: William and Mary o Bill of Rights of 1689 ?Limits power of monarchy: monarch is subject to law, must be protestant, include parliament in lawmaking [monarch butterflies still free to do as they please] – 16 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Elections to parliament free of royal interference No church courts Parliament consent for taxes required You can petition the king Parliament consent required for army People can have guns â€Å"Freedom of Debate† in parliament [because until now, they coincidentally agreed on everything] King can’t just take people’s stuff without having a trial.Then he can. Excessive bail, nono. Parliament has to be held frequently. ? ? ? o Act Of Toleration- a compromise bill ? Non-conformists (protestants who were not in the church of England) given right of public worship, Unitarians or Catholics were illegal. Test Act remained ? o The Mutiny Act [mutated knee act] ? Authorized martial law to govern the army. Had to be re-passed every year (parliament had to be summoned yearly for this) †¢ Queen is now STUART: Anne. Nothing changes. o Act of Settlement- preventing catholic Stuarts from getting on the throne ?Basically, this said that if Queen Anne dies without an heir, the thro ne goes to the Protestants in Hanover. Specifically, George the first. o Act Of Union- formed Great Britain out of England and Scotland. Only done so that Scotland would not go to war with England allied with France. ? Scotland gives up their parliament, allowed to maintain a Presbyterian church. o The Netherlands- a center of commerce and trade. ? Dutch War Of Independence – 17 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ †¢ ? City of Antwerp was sacked.They closed the Scheldt river as part of the peace of Westphalia. Lead to the center of trade being changed to Amsterdam. The Golden Age †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Bank of Amsterdam Dutch east India company Higher standard of living Religious tolerance â€Å"The Dutch proved to be nimble businessmen† In the Spanish inquisition, Jews fled to Netherlands [one could say they were orange Jews] Franz Hals- great portrait painter from Haarlem (yes, it’s spelled like that. ) Jan Vermeer- painted scenes of everyday Dutch life Rembrandt Van Rijn- painted The Night Watch- baroque art period †¢ †¢ †¢ ? Political decentralization †¢ †¢ †¢ o House of Orange- noble house who got power from revolting against Spain. Stadholder= male head of the family William of Nassau (he’s William of Orange, guys) = stadholder of the family Orange beats up France. He also became the king of England. Life in Modern Europe ? ? Growth and population- Population doubled in France between 1450-1550 Price revolution- population growth put pressure on basic commodities. Prices had to increase like 500% because supply was less than demand.Rural life †¢ Gentry are people from towns and cities. o These guys begin to enclose their lands aka. Fence off land that used to be open. ? †¢ English Poor Law-The state provides for the poor – 18 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ †¢ ? 3-field system- the rot ation of crops in agriculture? 1/3 lay fallow (they didn’t use it), 1/3 crops, 1/3 animals [baa baa moooo] Primogeniture- the oldest male child gets all the jaunt. City life †¢ Guilds continue to play a role in production of commodities. Cloth production done on a large scale.Capitalist entrepreneur would provide funds and organization of every stage of production. This made specialized guild-members sad. †¢ ? Family life †¢ †¢ No more than 3 or 4 children (usually) Marriages were arranged by parents, or formally improved, because they involved a transfer of property o o Married couples are full-fledged members of society â€Å"Single adults were looked on as potential thieves or trouble-makers if they were male, and as prostitutes if they were female. † There was a dowry o †¢ Tasks divided by gender & age, child labor was normal.Men do work, women cook, clean and make bebbies. For Protestants, the house became central rather than the church. o Paternalism increased because father is now the only person between the family and god †¢ †¢ 9: The Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment o Before the scientific revolution ? The view of scholasticism-combination of Christianity and ancient authors, such as Thomas Aquinas and Aristotle. †¢ Four Elements: earth, air, fire, water o Earth is the heaviest element and the earth is the center of the universe †¢ †¢ oAlchemy could define chemistry of the time Didn’t care about astronomy, believed in the works of Ptolemy (the heavens move around the earth) The Copernican revolution – 19 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Nicolas Copernicus wrote Concerning The Revolutions Of Celestial Spheres. A heliocentric universe, where the planets move about the sun. The orbits were circular. Tycho Brahe- the movement of the sun revolved around the earth but the other planets revolved around the sun. he taught Kepler. [fun facts about Bra he, courtesy of Mr.Willard: Brahe lost his nose in a bar fight over a math question, and fixed it with many metal noses that he would replace from day to day. Also, he had a pet dwarf who he would bring out at parties. The dwarf would go under the table and â€Å"do things with his hands†] Johannes Kepler- planets go in ellipses. Galileo Galilei- invented the telescope. The moon has mountains, and it’s made of the same material as earth. Jupiter has moons, and stars are far away. He also stated that the acceleration of gravity was constant for all masses.Giordano Bruno argued that there were many worlds in the universe, the papal inquisition executed him. Isaac Newton wrote Principia, examined the relations of different forces, invented differential calculus, and discovered that white light was a mixture of different lights. ? ? ? ? ? o The impact of scientific revolution on philosophy ? Francis Bacon [a delicious man] argued to examine evidence from nature when making thesis. Rene Descartes- â€Å"I think therefore I am,† wrote Discourse on Method, challenged major classical beliefs.He invented logical proofs (if P then Q), he tried to make logic and philosophy be done with math because it was incorruptible [see: Robespierre in relation to math] Blaise Pascal [the fireman] Pascal’s wager= it is better to bet that god exists than to bet that he does not, since if he does you will go to heaven, and if he doesn’t then you don’t lose anything. Thomas Hobbes believed that life was nasty, brutish and short. Wanted absolutism (man formed states with a sovereign that has complete power, the subjects would never rebel) because man naturally wanted to destroy each other.John Locke- social contract between the people and the state, where the people have certain inalienable rights [no ET allowed]: of life, liberty, and property. If a government infringes on these rights, man has the right [nay, the responsibility] to rebel. Anoth er idea was Tabula Rasa- there is no predestination or original sin; people were born with a clean slate. ? ? ? ? o The eighteenth-century Enlightenment ? Immanuel Kant- idea that individuals should not believe an idea simply because authority says it, people should use reasoning to solve problems.Philosophers are thinkers and would often speak at salons. ? – 20 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Republic of Letters was an international community of philosophers who communicated en francais [M. Giblin]. Voltaire was a philosophe. And a deist- believed that god created the universe and the laws of science, those laws are still being followed. ? †¢ †¢ Ecrasez l’infame (crush the horrible thing) was anti-religion He wrote Candide- humans cannot expect to find happiness by associating with specific philosophical systems. People should try to find a private comfort. ?Baron de Montesquieu wrote The Spirit of the Laws, wrote about separation of powers and checks and balances. Also said that slavery was unnatural and bad. Diderot wrote Encyclopedia, a collaboration of all the knowledge and information that was prominent at the time Rousseau was the most radical philosophe, antagonized Voltaire; believed in direct democracy vs. the other philosophes who believed in a constitutional monarchy. Ideas became prominent after his death, especially in the French Revolution. ? ? †¢ o Social Contract- Everyone has a duty to their country, a perfect society would be controlled by the â€Å"general will† of its populaceThe Spread of Enlightenment Thought ? Cesare Baccaria- Crimes and Punishment, about changing jurisprudence, the theory and philosophy of law. He believed everyone should have basic rights. David Hume- Atheism, doubt on religion. Questioned assumptions around cause and effect. EDWARD GIBBON- Wrote Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, [which was mean], criticized Christianity, saying it â€Å"weakened the vibrancy of the empire and contributed to its downfall† Adam Smith- Wealth of Nations: Free market, laissez-faire, invisible hand ? ? o Women and the Enlightenment ? Organized salons, where philosophes hung out Marquise de Pompadour- Louis the XV’s mistress, helped Diderot avoid censorship Mary Wollstonecraft- Women should vote, and hold public office. ? ? o European powers! In the age of enlightenment! ? Enlightened Absolutists- Catherine the Great of Russia, Joseph II of Austria, Frederick II of Prussia Prussia and Austria ? – 21 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢Frederick William (The Great Elector) worked out agreement with the Junkers (Prussian nobility)—they could have serfs, and would pay him money for the privilege Son Frederick III became Frederick I of Prussia (because Prussia became a Kingdom? ) Also was Frederick the Great, an enlightened absolutist o Freed serfs on Royal estates, but not the Junkers’ serfs, because he liked the Junkers. Abolished capital punishment, decreased amount of corporal punishment on serfs †¢ o †¢ Austrian Empress Maria Theresa begat Joseph II, who was a fan of religious toleration o †¢Issued Edicts of Toleration, granting Jews, Lutherans, Calvinists freedom of worship Wars of Austrian Succession o o HREmperor Charles VI has no male heir, issues Pragmatic Sanctionsays there can be a female heir Therefore, Maria Theresa is crowned, but France and Prussia begin to seize land (violating the sanction) Frederick I takes advantage of this and seizes Silesia, the richest part of Austria Treaty of Aix-La-Chapelle- Austrian throne will go to Habsburgs— ended the war Result of the War: Prussia gains power Diplomatic Revolution: alliance between Austrians and French, meant to weaken Prussians ?Great Britain allies with Prussia Leads directly into Seven Years War †¢ Ultimately won by Prussians and British because Russian Czar Peter III didn†™t want to have so much conflict so he protected the Prussians British allies defeat the French in the French and Indian War in America o o o o ? †¢ ? Russia—[The Fatherland] †¢ Ivan the Terrible expanded territory under the control of Muscovy [what the hell? ], Russia entered into a period of time known as THE TIME OF TROUBLES 22 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus [When I find myself in times of trouble, FATHER STALIN comes to me], ended with the selection of a czar from the Romanov family. †¢ This was Peter the Great! o o o o Forced nobles to shave their beards (as was the style in the west) Taxed nobility by the number of serfs they had Established monopolies on commodities like salt (See HIV) Table of Ranks—each government position had a graduated ranking, social mobility Established St.Petersburg, a â€Å"window on the West†, built in the newest styles from France [if you haven’t gotten the hint, Peter was a big fan of the West] Conscripted serfs into the army, built the first Russian navy, defeated the Swedes in the great Northern war Catherine the Great codified Russian law and had an affair with Stanislaw Augustus Poniatowski, he â€Å"somehow became† the King of Poland shortly afterwards. o o o ? Poland †¢ Lithuanian grand-duke Jagiello married Polish queen Jadwiga? PolishLithuanian Commonwealth o Defeated the Teutonic Knights at Battle of Grunwald †¢ †¢When Poniatowski becomes King, he â€Å"displayed an independent streak that Catherine the Great did not expect from her former Lover† Prussia, Russia, Austria forced Poland to accept a partition o Poland loses 30% of its territory †¢ Poland had Europe’s first written constitution o o Reduces the power of nobles who appealed to Russians for assistance Russia and Prussia partitioned again, which removed the constitution and removed a lot of land ? Tadeusz Kosciuszko leads a Polish revolt forcing P oniatowski to abdicate †¢ Third and final partition wiping Poland off the map. Great Britain †¢ Tories – 23 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o †¢ Whigs o o Wanted prerogative rights of the monarch More enlightened, liked religious tolerance Had a certain leader ? Do you remember his name? †¢ It is Edmund Burke! o Argued that parties were essential to parliamentary government and political stability. †¢ †¢ You should have learned all of the American Revolution stuff in APUSH American Revolution spurred a movement of parliamentary reform in Great Britain oJohn Wilkes, member of the House of Commons and part time pornographer*, arrested for publishing a satirical attack on King George III ? *Perfect example of social mobility. o ? France †¢ Wanted greater freedom of press and UMS Jansenists- Catholic sect which believes in predestination o Parlements==Provincial law courts made up of nobles, block Louis XV from supportin g a papal decree banning Jansenists ? Louis XV abolishes parlements †¢ Louis XVI brings them back †¢ 10- The French Revolution, Napoleon, the European Reaction o Background [Wallpaper? ] of the revolution ?Major problem facing ‘80s France [‘fro’s? ] was financial—they were kinda bankrupt, Budget: †¢ †¢ 50% Paying debts and interest 25% military o †¢ Funding American revolution, skirmishes with British 6% Royal Life [whig powdering? ] [intentional misspelling. They powdered Edmund Burke] [he was a whig leader] – 24 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus †¢ ? 19% infrastructure [not that much. Sad peasant. ] Estates General †¢ First Estate- Church and Clergy o Wealthy churchies, but there were also poor churches who felt aligned for the third estate Tithe- church tax o †¢Second Estate- Nobles and Aristocracy o o Only 3% of population Feudal privileges: Controlled mills and winemaking, would ofte n charge their own fees for use of the mills effectively making it difficult for peasants to use their grain †¢ Third Estate- Peasants and Bourgeoisie (the educated upper middle class, lawyers and doctors and thinkers) o Abbe Sieyes- Qu’est-ce que le troisieme etat? , â€Å"What is the third estate? Everything. What has it been in the political order up till the present? Nothing. What does it ask? To become something. † Were always overruled in EG because 1/3, when gov’t needed money they always raised taxes †¢ ? ? [Fourth Estate- Batman] [He was Robin the Pierre] Role of Enlightenment? INSPIRATION. Causes †¢ †¢ Failed harvests in 1789 makes poor people poor Louis fires Minister Finance Necker who wanted to subsidize grain and tax nobles, Peasants sad ? Louis called Assembly of Notables (leading aristocrats and churches), asked if they wanted to pay a land tax [they obviously said yes. ], instead suggested that they would have a greater share in governing [ok, sure guys], called for an Estates General o Calling of the Estates General ? ? [Hey, Estates General! Everybody complains that the third estate gets a third of the vote, so the King does nothing – 25 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? Erryone wanted change, but nobody knew how they wanted it, resulting in thousands of Cahiers de doleances (lists of grievances) †¢ Examples of what they wanted: equal tax system and regular meetings of the EG, limiting the size of sheep herds ? o King kept everybody waiting Tennis Court Oath ? The third estate was locked out of the meeting, so they went to a tennis court (handball) [whatever†¦ it was a court].They resolved keep convening until there was a new constitution Declaration of the Rights of Man- Lafayette influenced this, King did not sign: guaranteed Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality (later the French Motto) ? o †¢ Leaders [THUNDER]STORMING OF THE BASTILLE AND THE GREAT FEAR Na tional Assembly, Legislative Assembly, National Convention, The Directory Enrage J. Herbert Jacobins Robespierre, St. Just Couthon, â€Å"republic of pure virtue† idealism, vague Cordeliers J. P. Marat, G. J. Danton, C. Desmoulins Republic. One house, broader suffrage but not for women Girondists Jaques Brissot, M&Mme Roland, Condorcet, A.Sieyes Keep king as a figurehead, prime minister or president. Parliamentary system. Weak executive, strong legislative. Limited suffrage. Reform gradually, use laws. Upper bourgeoisie Feuillants Lafayette, Mirabeau Royalists Count Of Artios Agenda Anarchy Constitutional monarchy Absolutism Means To End Supporters Violence is nice. Abolish all, kill, then peace. Radical intellectuals, radical sandculottes Violence may be necessary (guillotine) Leaders? bourgeoisie, intellectuals. Followers? sansculottes Rapid reform, system of laws, wider suffrage Leaders? ourgeoisie, intellectuals. Followers ? sans-culottes Very slow and careful gradualllll llllllllly change, natural laws. Some (newer) nobles, some clergy Violence may be necessary to get back lost power Upper-class (old wealth) nobles, upper clergy – 26 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o ? Bastille- prison, a symbol of royal despotism, held dissenters. Peasants went and took the gunpowder. When they killed the governor (of the bastille), they put his head on a pike. This was the beginning of VIOLENCE! [bang bang! Louis was really scared. He recognized the Commune of Paris (a new government of the city of Paris). New national guard, under the command of Lafayette (a hero of the American Revolutionary War) The great [grape] fear: violence between the peasants and the nobles. Some aristocrats began to renounce their feudal rights Poissonards: Women from the fish market (poisson means fish), had knives for gutting, they could gut people like a fish [like Katie Evans]. It was raining, guards of the palace saw them and decided to invite them in and give them food.They found the King and Queen COWERING IN FEAR, Marquis de Lafayette made them compromise (they wanted to kill Marie Antoinette), instead they just had the royal family move to the Tuileries, a lesser palace in Paris. TURNING POINT: The center of the revolution was in Paris, Nat’l Assembly moved to Paris as well. June 1791-King and Queen try to eschape ? ? ? ? ? †¢ Dressed like bourgeoisie: went in a carriage, headed towards the Austrian Netherlands (Varenne) to meet up with the emigres (nobles who had fled during the Great Fear o †¢ Count of Artois (Louis XVI’s brother) had led the emigres.Were found out by a drunk guy, brought back to Paris and put under Palace Arrest ? Declaration of Pillnitz †¢ †¢ Issued by Leopold of Austria Said they would stifle France, but only if all of Europe came with them ? Olympe de Gouge- Wrote The Rights of Women, argued women should have property, education, and the right to divorce. Civil Constit ution of the Church- King is forced to pass this: Church is a department of the state, bishops are elected, clergy has state-funded salaries and all have to swear an oath of loyalty. †¢ Considered by many historians (and Mrs. Lansell) to be the biggest mistake of the revolution.Created a split in religion when Pope Pius VI denounced the Civil Constitution. ? †¢ – 27 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o o †¢ Refractory Clergy- more devout Catholics, included King and many peasants. Being part of this gave one a reason to be anti-revolution. Constitutional Clergy- strong revolutionaries—there was no strong reason to be part of this. Assignats- Government bonds backed by repossessed Church lands—each bill was redeemable for church land, eventually became the currency of the Republic. ? The National Assembly †¢ †¢ †¢ King has suspensive veto- can delay voting on legislation for 4 years.Also control army and foreign policy. Passive Citizens- Men who do not pay taxes. Active Citizens- Men who pay taxes. o Electors- active citizens with high property requirements. †¢ †¢ France was divided into 83 Departments (instead of the provinces) Paris Commune- Municipality of Paris, controlled by the people. Essentially idealistic communism (even though Marx hadn’t come up with it yet? ) o †¢ †¢ Controlled by Enrages Jews and Protestants have full political rights No slavery o †¢ †¢ Toussaint L ’Ouverture- Enraged at the continuation of slavery in the colonies, led a slave rebellion in Hispaniola (now Haiti)Brunswick Manifesto- Issued by Duke of Brunswick of Prussia— threatened to destroy Paris if the King or his family were harmed. Sans Culottes o Stormed the Tuileries and killed 600 Swiss mercenary guards, because they were bored and had nothing better to do. September Massacres- [Raped, killed, pillaged, and burned] o †¢ Lafayette is somehow No Lon ger the Commander: he flees and captured by Austrians and put in Jail until Napoleon comes and Frees Him. Paris Commune forces the National Assembly to create a new Legislative Body using UMS: this was called the National Convention †¢ o European Reactions to the French Revolution 28 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus ? William Pitt the Younger [dumbest name ever], British PM, hoped that the war would finally end the rivalry between the two nations. EDMUND BURKE- Wrote Reflections on the French Revolution, opposed the French Revolution, predicting it would become more violent [Well done, Edmund Buuuuurke! ] ? o THE REIGN OF TERR[i]ER [Puppies? ](Actually TerrOr) ? Montagniards- Radical Jacobins- named because they chose to sit above all the others in the National Convention The Plain- Girondists, moderates. Believed in Laissez-Faire, supported a strong legislative government.Committee of Public Safety- Comprised of Danton, Carnot, and Maximilien Robespierr e [who is incorruptible, right? ] Vendee- Area of France which uprose because the Revolutionary Tribunal (specifically Carnot, head of the military) created a Levee en Masse, or mandatory draft on every male 16-25. This angered the peasants because it took away their strong men right before the harvest. Law of Maxim- Froze wages and prices. Price controls benefited the Sans-Culottes. Law of Suspects- Empowers the Revolutionary Tribunal (Committee of Public Safety) to arrest anyone suspicious or suspected. †¢ Banned women from politics Censored the press ? ? ? ? ? ? Jean-Paul Marat- Journalist, published names of dissenters, stabbed by Charlotte Corday †¢ The day after he died was Bastille Day, so he was considered the martyr of the revolution and statues were made in his honor. Jacobins used his death as justification of the terror †¢ ? Jacobins tried to create a Republic of Virtue, where they removed all traces of the old regime. †¢ †¢ Created a new calenda r Removed all traces of religious symbols Created the Cult of the Supreme Being- a religion celebrating virtue, Roman influence.Worship every 10 days (weeks were 10 days long in the revolutionary calendar) o †¢ Supreme Being was pretty much Robespierre. †¢ Guillotined political enemies, circa 20,000 people. – 29 2009- Daniel Shafrir, Alexander Pinkus, Elizabeth Pinkus o Many were Girondists. ? Desmoulins (a Cordelier) wrote for a newspaper, in which he called for the end of the terror and therefore was arrested by Robespierre †¢ †¢ †¢ Danton supported his theory (was also a Cordelier) and was arrested too No Cordeliers are left, so only the Jacobins are in power.Robespierre’s popularity wanes o Robespierre says he has a list of all the traitors in the National Assembly and that he will read it the next day Overnight they decide he is a traitor ? He is arrested †¢ He tried to shoot himself and fails o They execute him o ? Thermidorean React ion- People get mad, 100 leading Jacobins are guillotined †¢ The White Terror- Any association with Jacobins or Robespierre would get you guillotined. o o The Directory Napoleon was arrested, but he managed not to get guillotined. ?The Council of Ancients- People aged 40+: They voted on legislation which the Council of 500 created. They had 3 year terms. The Council of 500- General assembly: had to be aged 30+. 2/3 of them had to have been in the National Convention. †¢ Royalists were upset because they had left the National Convention earlier. Tough luck, guys! 2/3 law reaction: Royalists are protesting over the 2/3 law, peasants are generally angry over bad harvests and such so royalists let them fight too. ? †¢ o NAPOLEON BONAPARTE